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To appear in:
Robinson, Matthew B. (2005).  Justice Blind? Ideals and Realities of American Criminal Justice (2nd Edition).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
 

The Process of Innocent Bias

Figure 1.1 Relative Size of American Police, Courts, and Corrections (Percentage of all Criminal Justice Employees, 2000)

Figure 1.2 The Scales of Justice

Figure 1.3 Due Process Model and Crime Control Model of Justice

Figure 1.4 Justice as an Outcome and Justice as a Process

Figure 2.1 Spending by the U.S. Government on Criminal and Civil Justice

Figure 3.1 Types of Law

Figure 3.2 Extra Sensory Political Participation (ESP): How Politicians Know What We Want When We Don’t Vote

Table 3.1 Criminal Law and Civil Law

Table 3.2 Demographic Characteristics of Legislators

Table 3.3 Voting Behavior, by Age (2002)

Table 3.4 Money in Federal Politics (2001-2002)

Table 3.5 Top Political Action Committees (PACs) in Federal Politics (2001-2002)

Figure 4.1 The Typical Offender and Victim of Street Crime and White-Collar Deviance

Figure 4.2 Percentage of Crimes Known to the Police (2001)

Figure 4.3 The Crime Clock (2001)

Figure 4.4 Trends in American Crime (NCVS)

Figure 4.5 Public Opinion of Crime

Table 4.1 A Typology of Victimization

Table 4.2 Number of Crimes Known to the Police (2001)

Table 4.3 Crimes Measured by the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) and National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

Table 4.4 Criminal Victimization in the United States (2001)

Figure 5.1 Organization of the Media

Figure 5.2 The Growth of a Crime Problem

Figure 5.3 How the Media Shape Public Opinion of Crime

Figure 6.1 Focus of Law Enforcement on Victimization

Figure 6.2 Law Enforcement Use of Force Continuum

Table 6.1 American Police Agencies (2000)

Table 6.2 American Police Employees (2000)

Table 6.3 Arrests in the United States, by Race (2000)

Table 6.4 Americans’ Views of the Police (2001)

Table 7.1 Convictions in State Courts (1998)

Figure 8.1 Continuum of American Punishments

Figure 8.2 Correctional Populations in the United States (2001)

Figure 8.3 Likelihood of Incarceration, by Crime Type (1998)

Table 8.1 Types of Sentences Imposed on Convicted Felons (1998)

Table 8.2 Average Sentences Imposed on Convicted Felons (1998)

Figure 9.1 Trends in America’s Imprisonment Rate

Figure 9.2 Key Events in America’s Imprisonment Boom

Figure 9.3 Trends in Incarceration, by Crime Types

Figure 9.4 Trends in Federal Drug Imprisonment

Table 9.1 Characteristics of American Inmates

Table 9.2 African Americans in Correctional Populations

Figure 9.5 Imprisonment Rates, by Race (2001)

Figure 10.1 Trends in American Executions

Figure 10.2 Trends in America’s Death Row Population

Figure 10.3 America’s Death Row Population, by Race (January 2003)

Table 10.1 Executions in the United States (2002)

Table 10.2 Death Row Populations in the United States (January 2003)

Table 10.3 Method of Executions (2002)

Table 10.4 Public Support for Capital Punishment (Harris)

Table 10.5 Public Support for Capital Punishment (Gallup)

Table 10.6 Reasons for Supporting Capital Punishment (2001)

Figure 11.1 Trends in Federal Spending on the Drug War

Figure 11.2 Trends in Federal Spending on the Drug War, by Area of Spending

Figure 11.3 Extent of Drug Use in the United States (2001)

Figure 11.4 Trends in Drug Use (NHSDA)

Figure 11.5 Trends in Youth Drug Use (MFS)

Figure 11.6 Trends in Emergency Room Mentions of Drugs (DAWN)

Figure 11.7 Trends in Deaths Attributed to Illicit Drugs

Figure 11.8 Race and Drugs

Figure 11.9 Possible Outcomes of Policing Drugs

Table 11.1 Key Facts of the War on Drugs

Table 11.2 Sources of Data on Drug Use

Table 11.3 Availability of Drugs Among High School Students (2001)

Figure 12.1 The Wars on Crime, Drugs, and the Poor

Figure 12.2 Risk of Criminal Justice Involvement, by Demographic Characteristics

Figure 12.3 Degrees of Discrimination

Figure 12.4 Forms of Institutional Discrimination

Table 12.1 Rates of Criminal Victimization, by Gender (2001)

Table 12.2 Arrests, by Gender (2001)

Table 12.3 Convictions by State Courts, by Gender (2001)

Table 12.4 Sentences Under Federal Sentencing Guidelines, by Gender (2001)

Table 12.5 Type of Punishment Imposed on Convicted Felons, by Gender (2001)

Table 12.6 Average Sentences Imposed on Convicted Felons, by Gender (2001)

Figure 13.1 Sources of Bias in American Criminal Justice